Guide References
Explore a selection of resources and publications on wind energy and wildlife, including key sources used to develop this guide. This page includes selected references and is not a comprehensive bibliography.
Key References
- AWWI Wind turbine Interactions with Wildlife and Their Habitats: A Summary of Research Results and Priority Questions
- Allison et al. 2019. Impacts to wildlife of wind energy siting and operation in the United States. Issues in Ecology 21:1-24.
- U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Land-Based Wind Energy Guidelines
Chapter 1
Regulatory Context, Study Methods, and Development Guidelines
Mitigation Hierarchy: Avoid, Minimize, Compensate
Wind Energy Development in the Context of Federal Wildlife Statutes
- U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Ecological Services: Energy Development: Permits, Policies and Authorities.
- U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Ecological Services: What We Do: Listing and Critical Habitat » Overview Endangered Species Act.
- Endangered Species Act, U.S. Code (definitions).
- U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service: Section 7 Consultation Technical Assistance.
- U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Migratory Birds: Migratory Bird Treaty Act (MBTA) Rulemaking process.
- U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Land-Based Wind Energy Guidelines.
- U.S. Federal Register. 2016. Eagle Permits; Revisions to Regulations for Eagle Incidental Take and Take of Eagle Nests.
- U.S. Environmental Protection Agency: NEPA Review Process.
- U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service: Regional Contacts and Field Offices.
- National Environmental Policy Act Laws.
Role of Regional, State, and Local Agencies
- Association of Fish & Wildlife Agencies. 2019. State Fish and Wildlife Agency Wind Siting Survey Final Report.
- National Conference of State Legislatures: State Approaches to Wind Facility Siting.
- Association of Fish & Wildlife Agencies: State Wildlife Action Plans.
- Western Association of Fish & Wildlife Agencies: Crucial Habitat Assessment Tool.
- AWWI: Wind Energy Siting: Resources for Preliminary Site Assessment.
A Common Toolkit for Evaluating Risk and Impacts
Voluntary Wind Energy Guidelines
Chapter 2
What Do We Know about Impacts & Risk Factors?
Assessing Risk
Collision Risk and Risk Factors
- AWWI: Wind Turbine Interactions with Wildlife and their Habitats: A Summary of Research Results and Priority Questions.
- Allison et al. 2019. Impacts to Wildlife of Wind Energy Siting and Operation. Issues in Ecology 21.
- AWWI. 2020. Summary of Bat Fatality Monitoring Data Contained in AWWIC (2nd Edition). AWWI Technical Report.
- AWWI. 2020. Summary of Bird Fatality Monitoring Data Contained in AWWIC (2nd Edition). AWWI Technical Report.
- U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Land-Based Wind Energy Guidelines.
- Peters K, Evans I, Traiger E, Collins J, Mathews C, Klehr, A. 2020. Landscape Factors Associated with Fatalities of Migratory Tree-Roosting Bats at Wind Energy Facilities: An Initial Assessment. AWWI Technical Report.
- Lawson M, Jenne D, Thresher R, Houck D, Wimsatt J, Straw S. 2020. An investigation into the potential for wind turbines to cause barotrauma in bats. PLoS ONE 15(12): e0242485.
Habitat-Based Impacts
- U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Land-Based Wind Energy Guidelines.
- Harrison JO, Brown MB, Powell LA, Schacht WH, and Smith JA. 2017. Nest site selection and nest survival of Greater Prairie-Chickens near a wind energy facility. The Condor: Ornithological Applications 119:659-72.
- Kirol CP, Smith KT, Graf NE, Dinkins JB, LeBeau CW, Maechtle TL, Sutphin AL, and Beck JL. 2020. Greater Sage-grouse response to the physical footprint of energy development. Journal of Wildlife Management. 84:989-1001.
- LeBeau CW, Johnson GD, Holloran MJ, Beck JL, Nielson RM, Kauffman ME, Rodemaker EJ, and McDonald TL. 2017a. Greater sage‐grouse habitat selection, survival, and wind energy infrastructure. The Journal of Wildlife Management 81:690-711.
- Lebeau CW, Beck JL, Johnson GD, Nielson RM, Holloran MJ, Gerow KG, and McDonald TL. 2017b. Greater sage‐grouse male lek counts relative to a wind energy development. Wildlife Society Bulletin 41:17-26.
- Lovich JE, and Ennen JR. 2017. Reptiles and amphibians. Pages 97-118 in Perrow MR, ed. Wildlife and Wind Farms, Conflicts and Solutions. Volume 1 Onshore: Potential Effects. Pelagic Publishing, Exeter, UK.
- McNew LB, Hunt LM, Gregory AJ, Wisely SM, and Sandercock BK. 2014. Effects of wind energy development on nesting ecology of greater prairie‐chickens in fragmented grasslands. Conservation Biology 28:1089-99.
- Proett M, Roberts SB, Horne JS, Koons DN, and Messmer TA. 2019. Columbian Sharp-tailed Grouse nesting ecology: wind energy and habitat. Journal of Wildlife Management 83:1214-1225.
- Smith JA, Brown MB, Harrison JO, and Powell LA. 2017. Predation risk: a potential mechanism for effects of a wind energy facility on Greater Prairie‐Chicken survival. Ecosphere 8:e01835
- Smith KT, Taylor, KL, Albeke SE, and Beck JL. 2020. Pronghorn winter resource selection before and after wind energy development in south-central Wyoming. Rangeland Ecology and Management 73:227-233.
- Winder VL, McNew LB, Gregory AJ, Hunt LM, Wisely SM, and Sandercock BK. 2013. Space use by female greater prairie-chickens in response to wind energy development. Ecosphere 5:1-17.
- Winder VL, Mcnew LB, Gregory AJ, Hunt LM, Wisely SM, and Sandercock BK. 2014. Effects of wind energy development on the survival of female greater prairie-chickens. Journal of Applied Ecology 51:395-405.
- Winder VL, Gregory AJ, McNew LB, and Sandercock BK. 2015. Responses of male Greater Prairie-Chickens to wind energy development. The Condor 117:284-296.
Population Impacts
- U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Land-Based Wind Energy Guidelines.
- Katzner TE et al. 2015. Golden Eagle fatalities and the continental-scale consequences of local wind-energy generation. Conservation Biology.
- White-Nose Syndrome Response Team: What Is White-nose Syndrome?
- Erickson WP, Wolfe MM, Bay KJ, Johnson DH, Gehring JL. 2014. A Comprehensive Analysis of Small-Passerine Fatalities from Collision with Turbines at Wind Energy Facilities. PLoS ONE 9(9): e107491.
Chapter 3
Landscape Assessment and Siting Practices to Address Risk to Wildlife and Habitat
Landscape-Level and Site Screening Studies
- American Clean Power Association: Project development facts.
- Apex Clean Energy: Designing a Wind Project – Siting Turbines.
- U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service: Environmental Conservation Online System.
- U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service: National Wetlands Inventory.
- Western Association of Fish & Wildlife Agencies (WAFWA) Crucial Habitat Assessment Tool (CHAT).
- Southern Great Plains Crucial Habitat Assessment Tool (CHAT).
- The Nature Conservancy: Site Wind Right.
- AWWI: Wind Energy Siting: Resources for Preliminary Site Assessment
- U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Land-Based Wind Energy Guidelines.
Documenting Site Wildlife and Habitat Resources
Siting to Reduce Risk
- AWWI: Wind Turbine Interactions with Wildlife and their Habitats: A Summary of Research Results and Priority Questions.
- U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service Land-Based Wind Energy Guidelines.
- U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service: Endangered Species.
- American Clean Power Association: Wind project siting considerations.
- LeBeau, C., M. Kauffman, K. Smith, J. Haddock, A. Tanner, and K. Kosciuch. 2020. Placement of Wind Energy Infrastructure Matters: A Quantitative Study Evaluating Response of Lesser Prairie-Chicken to a Wind Energy Facility. AWWI Technical Report.
- Van Pelt WE, et al. 2013. The Lesser Prairie-Chicken Range-wide Conservation Plan. Western Association of Fish and Wildlife Agencies p. 107.
- The Nature Conservancy: Site Wind Right.
- Manier, DJ et al. 2014. Conservation buffer distance estimates for Greater Sage-Grouse—A review. U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report 2014–1239.
Chapter 4
Minimizing Collision Risk to Wildlife During Operations
Minimization: Deterrence
- T. Harvey & Associates. 2018. Evaluating a Commercial-Ready Technology for Raptor Detection and Deterrence at a Wind Energy Facility in California. AWWI Technical Report.
- Gorresen P, Cryan PM, Dalton DC, Wolf S, Johnson JA, Todd CM, Bonaccorso FJ. 2015. Dim ultraviolet light as a means of deterring activity by the Hawaiian hoary bat Lasiuruscinereus semotus. Endangered Species Research 28: 249–257.
- May R, Nygård T, Falkdalen U, Åström J, Hamre Ø, Stokke BG. 2020. Paint it black: Efficacy of increased wind turbine rotor blade visibility to reduce avian fatalities. Ecology and Evolution 10:8927–8935.
- Weaver SP, Hein CD, Simpson TR, Evans JW, Castro-Arellano I. 2020. Ultrasonic acoustic deterrents significantly reduce bat fatalities at wind turbines. Global Ecology and Conservation 24:e01099.
Minimization: Curtailment
- Hayes MA, Hooton LA, Gilland KL, Grandgent C, Smit RL, Lindsay SR, Collins JD, Schumacher SM, Rabie PA, Gruver JC, Goodrich-Mahoney J. 2019. A smart curtailment approach for reducing bat fatalities and curtailment time at wind energy facilities. Ecological Applications 29:e01881.
- Martin CM, Arnett EB, Stevens RD, Wallace MC. 2017. Reducing bat fatalities at wind facilities while improving the economic efficiency of operational mitigation. Journal of Mammalogy 98:378-385.
- Ferrer M, de Lucas M, Janss GFE, Casado E, Muñoz AR, Bechard MJ, Calabuig CP. 2012. Weak relationship between risk assessment studies and recorded mortality in wind farms. Journal of Applied Ecology 49:38-46.
- de Lucas M, Ferrer M, Bechard M, Muñoz MJ. 2012. Griffon vulture mortality at wind farms in southern Spain: Distribution of fatalities and active mitigation measures. Biological Conservation 147:184-189.
- McClure CJW, Rolek BW, Dunn L, McCabe JD, Martinson L, Katzner T. 2021. Eagle fatalities are reduced by automated curtailment of wind turbines. Journal of Applied Ecology 58:446-452.
- Whitby M, Schirmacher M, Frick W. 2021. The State of the Science on Operational Minimization to Reduce Bat Fatality at Wind Energy Facilities.
Chapter 5
Compensatory Mitigation
Compensating for Adverse Impacts
- U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service: Eagle Management.
- Huso MP et al. 2015. Estimating wind-turbine-caused bird and bat fatality when zero carcasses are observed. Ecological Applications 25(5):1213-1225.
- Western EcoSystems Technology, Inc. 2016. Technical Memorandum: Mitigation Banking-Style Option for the Headwaters Wind Farm Habitat Conservation Plan.
- United States Department of Agriculture Natural Resources Conservation Service: Banking on Sage Grouse Habitat.
- Shaffer JA et al. 2019. Estimating offsets for avian displacement effects of anthropogenic impacts. Ecological Applications. Ecological Society of America. 29(8):e01983.
How is Compensatory Mitigation Implemented?
- U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Land-Based Wind Energy Guidelines.
- U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service: Endangered Species Act.
- U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 2011. Habitat Conservation Plans Under the Endangered Species Act.
- U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 2016. Midwest Wind Multi-Species Habitat Conservation Plan.
- U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 2016. Eagle Permits; Revisions to Regulations for Eagle Incidental Take and Take of Eagle Nests.
- U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service: Eagle Management.
- U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 2013. Eagle Conservation Plan Guidance.
- Cochrane JF, et al. 2015. Modeling with uncertain science: estimating mitigation credits from abating lead poisoning in Golden Eagles. Ecological Applications 25(6)1518–1533.
- Lonsdorf E, Sanders-Reed CA, Boal C, Allison T. 2018. Modeling Golden Eagle-Vehicle Collisions to Design Mitigation Strategies. The Journal of Wildlife Management.
- United States Department of Agriculture Natural Resources Conservation Service: Banking on Sage Grouse Habitat.
- LeBeau CW, et al. 2018. Landscape-Scale Approach to Quantifying Habitat Credits for A Greater Sage-grouse Habitat Conservation Bank. Rangeland Ecology & Management 71(2):149-158.
- Van Pelt WE, et al. 2013. The Lesser Prairie-Chicken Range-wide Conservation Plan. Western Association of Fish and Wildlife Agencies.
PHOTO CREDITS
Homepage & Overview
- Red-Winged Blackbirds Photo by Alberto_Vo5 / CC BY-NC 2.0
- Horned Lark Photo by Kenneth Cole Schnieder / CC BY-NC-SA 2.0
- Turbines During the Day Photo by Portland General Electric / CC BY-ND 2.0
- Prairie Chicken Photo Credit: USFWS (Public Domain)
- Big Horn Wind Farm: Courtesy of Iberdrola Renewables/NREL
- Bat Thermal Image Credit: USFWS (Public Domain)
- Indiana Bat Photo Credit: USFWS – Midwest Region (Public Domain)
- Hannibal Caves Photo Courtesy of Steve Orr/The Conservation Fund
- Western Meadowlark Photo by Dan Streiffert / CC BY-NC 2.0
Chapter 1
- Mexican Free-Tailed Bats Photo Credit: USFWS (Public Domain)
- Golden Eagle Credit: Kent Miller/NPS (Public Domain)
- Tucanon River Wind Farm Landscape Photo by Portland General Electric / CC BY-ND 2.0
- Red Canyon Road and Rim Photo by Bernd Thaller / CC BY 2.0
- Spring Valley Photo Courtesy of Pattern Energy
Chapter 2
- Turbines During the Day Photo by Portland General Electric / CC BY-ND 2.0
- Golden Eagle Photo by Ingnacio Ferre Pérez / CC BY-NC-ND 2.0
- Mexican Free-Tailed Bats Photo by USFWS (Public Domain)
- Greater Sage Grouse Photo by USFWS Pacific Southwest Region (Public Domain)
- Cedar Waxwing Photo by Teddy Llovet / CC BY-NC 2.0
- Judith Gab Wind Energy Center in Montana Photo Courtesy of Invenergy
Chapter 3
- Nebraska Prairie Photo by Rick Bohn / USFWS (Public Domain)
- Documenting Site Photo by USDA (Public Domain)
- Prairie Chicken Photo Credit USFWS (Public Domain)
- Turbine in Field Photo by Chesapeake Bay Program / CC BY-NC 2.0
Chapter 4
- NRG Engineering Photo Courtesy of NRG Systems
- Kodiak Electric Wind Turbine Maintenance Photo by James Brooks / CC BY 2.0
Chapter 5
- Bald Eagle Photo by Nicole Beaulac / CC BY-NC-ND 2.0
- Indiana Bats in Wyandotte Cave Photo by R. Andrew King/USFWS (Public Domain)
- Golden Eagle Photo by Alan Schmierer / CC0 1.0
- Turbines at Dusk Photo Courtesy of Pattern Energy