Select Publications
Explore a selection of resources and publications on wind energy and wildlife, including key sources used to develop this guide. This page includes selected references and is not a comprehensive bibliography.
Key Resources
- Allison et al. 2019. Impacts to wildlife of wind energy siting and operation in the United States. Issues in Ecology 21:1-24.
- AWWI Wind turbine Interactions with Wildlife and Their Habitats: A Summary of Research Results and Priority Questions
- U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Land-Based Wind Energy Guidelines
Chapter 1
Regulatory Context, Study Methods, and Development Guidelines
Mitigation Hierarchy: Avoid, Minimize, Compensate
Wind Energy Development in the Context of Federal Wildlife Statutes
- Endangered Species Act, U.S. Code (definitions).
- National Environmental Policy Act Laws.
- U.S. Environmental Protection Agency: NEPA Review Process.
- U.S. Federal Register. 2016. Eagle Permits; Revisions to Regulations for Eagle Incidental Take and Take of Eagle Nests.
- U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Ecological Services: Energy Development: Permits, Policies and Authorities.
- U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Ecological Services: What We Do: Listing and Critical Habitat » Overview Endangered Species Act.
- U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Migratory Birds: Migratory Bird Treaty Act (MBTA) Rulemaking process.
- U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service: Section 7 Consultation Technical Assistance.
- U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service: Regional Contacts and Field Offices.
Role of Regional, State, and Local Agencies
- Association of Fish & Wildlife Agencies. 2019. State Fish and Wildlife Agency Wind Siting Survey Final Report.
- Association of Fish & Wildlife Agencies: State Wildlife Action Plans.
- AWWI: Wind Energy Siting: Resources for Preliminary Site Assessment.
- National Conference of State Legislatures: State Approaches to Wind Facility Siting.
- Western Association of Fish & Wildlife Agencies: Crucial Habitat Assessment Tool.
A Common Toolkit for Evaluating Risk and Impacts
Voluntary Wind Energy Guidelines
Chapter 2
What Do We Know about Impacts & Risk Factors?
Assessing Risk
- Alsaleh, Ali, and Melanie Sattler. “Comprehensive Life Cycle Assessment of Large Wind Turbines in the US.” Clean Technologies and Environmental Policy 21, no. 4 (May 2019): 887–903. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10098-019-01678-0.
- Bay et al. 2016. Predicting Eagle Fatalities at Wind Facilities. The Journal of Wildlife Management 80(6):1000–1010; 2016; DOI: 10.1002/jwmg.21086.
- Crichton D. 1999. Natural disaster management: a presentation to commemorate the International Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction (IDNDR), 1990-2000. The Risk Triangle.
- Crichton D. 1999. Natural disaster management: a presentation to commemorate the International Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction (IDNDR), 1990-2000. The Risk Triangle.
- U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service: Eagle Conservation Plan Guidance. Appendix D, Table D-1.
Collision Risk and Impacts
- Allison et al. 2019. Impacts to Wildlife of Wind Energy Siting and Operation. Issues in Ecology 21.
- AWWI. 2020. Summary of Bat Fatality Monitoring Data Contained in AWWIC (2nd Edition). AWWI Technical Report.
- AWWI. 2020. Summary of Bird Fatality Monitoring Data Contained in AWWIC (2nd Edition). AWWI Technical Report.
- AWWI: Wind Turbine Interactions with Wildlife and their Habitats: A Summary of Research Results and Priority Questions.
- Choi, Daniel Y., Thomas W. Wittig, and Bryan M. Kluever. “An Evaluation of Bird and Bat Mortality at Wind Turbines in the Northeastern United States.” PLOS ONE 15, no. 8 (August 28, 2020): e0238034. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0238034.
- Guest, Emma E., Brittany F. Stamps, Nevin D. Durish, Amanda M. Hale, Cris D. Hein, Brogan P. Morton, Sara P. Weaver, and Sarah R. Fritts. “An Updated Review of Hypotheses Regarding Bat Attraction to Wind Turbines.” Animals 12, no. 3 (January 2022): 343. https://doi.org/10.3390/ani12030343.
- Lawson M, Jenne D, Thresher R, Houck D, Wimsatt J, Straw S. 2020. An investigation into the potential for wind turbines to cause barotrauma in bats. PLoS ONE 15(12): e0242485.
- Miller, Tricia A., Robert P. Brooks, Michael Lanzone, David Brandes, Jeff Cooper, Kieran O’Malley, Charles Maisonneuve, Junior Tremblay, Adam Duerr, and Todd Katzner. “Assessing Risk to Birds from Industrial Wind Energy Development via Paired Resource Selection Models: Assessing Risk to Birds from Wind Energy.” Conservation Biology 28, no. 3 (June 2014): 745–55. https://doi.org/10.1111/cobi.12227.
- Peters K, Evans I, Traiger E, Collins J, Mathews C, Klehr, A. 2020. Landscape Factors Associated with Fatalities of Migratory Tree-Roosting Bats at Wind Energy Facilities: An Initial Assessment. AWWI Technical Report.
- Solick D, Pham D, Nasman K, Bay, K. 2020. Bat Activity Rates Do Not Predict Bat Fatality Rates at Wind Energy Facilities. Acta Chiropterologica 22(1): 135–146.
- Whitfield, D P. “Collision Avoidance of Golden Eagles at Wind Farms under the ‘Band’ Collision Risk Model,” n.d., 35.
Habitat-Based Impacts
- Dohm, Regan, Christopher S Jennelle, Julie C Garvin, and David Drake. “A Long-Term Assessment of Raptor Displacement at a Wind Farm.” Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment 17, no. 8 (2019): 433–38. https://doi.org/10.1002/fee.2089.
- Harrison JO, Brown MB, Powell LA, Schacht WH, and Smith JA. 2017. Nest site selection and nest survival of Greater Prairie-Chickens near a wind energy facility. The Condor: Ornithological Applications 119:659-72.
- Kirol CP, Smith KT, Graf NE, Dinkins JB, LeBeau CW, Maechtle TL, Sutphin AL, and Beck JL. 2020. Greater Sage-grouse response to the physical footprint of energy development. Journal of Wildlife Management. 84:989-1001.
- LeBeau CW, Johnson GD, Holloran MJ, Beck JL, Nielson RM, Kauffman ME, Rodemaker EJ, and McDonald TL. 2017a. Greater sage‐grouse habitat selection, survival, and wind energy infrastructure. The Journal of Wildlife Management 81:690-711.
- Lebeau CW, Beck JL, Johnson GD, Nielson RM, Holloran MJ, Gerow KG, and McDonald TL. 2017b. Greater sage‐grouse male lek counts relative to a wind energy development. Wildlife Society Bulletin 41:17-26.
- Lloyd, J. D., C. L. Aldridge, T. D. Allison, C. W. LeBeau, L. B. McNew, and V. L. Winder. 2022. Prairie grouse and wind energy: the state of the science and implications for risk assessment. Wildlife Society Bulletin 46:e1305. https://doi.org/10.1002/wsb.1305.
- Lovich JE, and Ennen JR. 2017. Reptiles and amphibians. Pages 97-118 in Perrow MR, ed. Wildlife and Wind Farms, Conflicts and Solutions. Volume 1 Onshore: Potential Effects. Pelagic Publishing, Exeter, UK.
- McNew LB, Hunt LM, Gregory AJ, Wisely SM, and Sandercock BK. 2014. Effects of wind energy development on nesting ecology of greater prairie‐chickens in fragmented grasslands. Conservation Biology 28:1089-99.
- Proett M, Roberts SB, Horne JS, Koons DN, and Messmer TA. 2019. Columbian Sharp-tailed Grouse nesting ecology: wind energy and habitat. Journal of Wildlife Management 83:1214-1225.
- Smith JA, Brown MB, Harrison JO, and Powell LA. 2017. Predation risk: a potential mechanism for effects of a wind energy facility on Greater Prairie‐Chicken survival. Ecosphere 8:e01835
- Smith KT, Taylor, KL, Albeke SE, and Beck JL. 2020. Pronghorn winter resource selection before and after wind energy development in south-central Wyoming. Rangeland Ecology and Management 73:227-233.
- Winder VL, McNew LB, Gregory AJ, Hunt LM, Wisely SM, and Sandercock BK. 2013. Space use by female greater prairie-chickens in response to wind energy development. Ecosphere 5:1-17.
- Winder VL, Mcnew LB, Gregory AJ, Hunt LM, Wisely SM, and Sandercock BK. 2014. Effects of wind energy development on the survival of female greater prairie-chickens. Journal of Applied Ecology 51:395-405.
- Winder VL, Gregory AJ, McNew LB, and Sandercock BK. 2015. Responses of male Greater Prairie-Chickens to wind energy development. The Condor 117:284-296.
Population Impacts
- Bateman, Brooke L., Chad Wilsey, Lotem Taylor, Joanna Wu, Geoffrey S. LeBaron, and Gary Langham. “North American Birds Require Mitigation and Adaptation to Reduce Vulnerability to Climate Change.” Conservation Science and Practice 2, no. 8 (2020): e242. https://doi.org/10.1111/csp2.242.
- Baerwald, E. F., W. P. Patterson, and R. M. R. Barclay. “Origins and Migratory Patterns of Bats Killed by Wind Turbines in Southern Alberta: Evidence from Stable Isotopes.” Ecosphere 5, no. 9 (2014): art118. https://doi.org/10.1890/ES13-00380.1.
- Erickson WP, Wolfe MM, Bay KJ, Johnson DH, Gehring JL. 2014. A Comprehensive Analysis of Small-Passerine Fatalities from Collision with Turbines at Wind Energy Facilities. PLoS ONE 9(9): e107491.
- Friedenberg, Nicholas, and Winifred Frick. “Assessing Fatality Minimization for Hoary Bats amid Continued Wind Energy Development.” Biological Conservation 262 (October 1, 2021): 109309. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biocon.2021.109309.
- Hale, Amanda M., Cris D. Hein, and Bethany R. Straw. “Acoustic and Genetic Data Can Reduce Uncertainty Regarding Populations of Migratory Tree-Roosting Bats Impacted by Wind Energy.” Animals 12, no. 1 (January 2022): 81. https://doi.org/10.3390/ani12010081.
- Katzner TE et al. 2015. Golden Eagle fatalities and the continental-scale consequences of local wind-energy generation. Conservation Biology.
- Katzner, Todd E., Melissa A. Braham, Tara J. Conkling, Jay E. Diffendorfer, Adam E. Duerr, Scott R. Loss, David M. Nelson, Hannah B. Vander Zanden, and Julie L. Yee. “Assessing Population-Level Consequences of Anthropogenic Stressors for Terrestrial Wildlife.” Ecosphere 11, no. 3 (2020): e03046. https://doi.org/10.1002/ecs2.3046.
- Loss, Scott R., Tom Will, and Peter P. Marra. “Direct Mortality of Birds from Anthropogenic Causes.” Annual Review of Ecology, Evolution, and Systematics 46, no. 1 (December 4, 2015): 99–120. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-ecolsys-112414-054133.
- May, R., E. A. Masden, F. Bennet, and M. Perron. “Considerations for Upscaling Individual Effects of Wind Energy Development towards Population-Level Impacts on Wildlife.” Journal of Environmental Management 230 (January 15, 2019): 84–93. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2018.09.062.
- White-Nose Syndrome Response Team: What Is White-nose Syndrome?
- Slabe, Vincent A, James T Anderson, Brian A Millsap, Jeffrey L Cooper, Alan R Harmata, Marco Restani, Ross H Crandall, et al. “Demographic Implications of Lead Poisoning for Eagles across North America,” 2022, 5.
Chapter 3
Landscape Assessment and Siting Practices to Address Risk to Wildlife and Habitat
Landscape-Level and Site Screening Studies
- American Clean Power Association: Project development facts.
- Apex Clean Energy: Designing a Wind Project – Siting Turbines.
- AWWI: Wind Energy Siting: Resources for Preliminary Site Assessment.
- Southern Great Plains Crucial Habitat Assessment Tool (CHAT).
- The Nature Conservancy: Site Wind Right.
- U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service: Environmental Conservation Online System.
- U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service: National Wetlands Inventory.
- Western Association of Fish & Wildlife Agencies (WAFWA) Crucial Habitat Assessment Tool (CHAT).
Documenting Site Wildlife and Habitat Resources at a Potential Development Site
Siting to Reduce Risk
- American Clean Power Association: Wind project siting considerations.
- AWWI: Wind Turbine Interactions with Wildlife and their Habitats: A Summary of Research Results and Priority Questions.
- Bajema, Robb, Travis DeVault, Peter Scott, and Steven Lima. “Reclaimed Coal Mine Grasslands and Their Significance for Henslow’s Sparrows in the American Midwest.” The Auk 118 (January 24, 2009): 422–31. https://doi.org/10.1642/0004-8038(2001)118[0422:RCMGAT]2.0.CO;2.
- LeBeau, C., M. Kauffman, K. Smith, J. Haddock, A. Tanner, and K. Kosciuch. 2020. Placement of Wind Energy Infrastructure Matters: A Quantitative Study Evaluating Response of Lesser Prairie-Chicken to a Wind Energy Facility. AWWI Technical Report.
- Manier, DJ et al. 2014. Conservation buffer distance estimates for Greater Sage-Grouse—A review. U.S. Geological.
- Mattice, Jennifer A.; Brauning, Daniel W.; Diefenbach, Duane R. 2005. Abundance of Grassland Sparrows on Reclaimed Surface Mines in Western Pennsylvania. In: Ralph, C. John; Rich, Terrell D., editors 2005. Bird Conservation Implementation and Integration in the Americas: Proceedings of the Third International Partners in Flight Conference. 2002 March 20-24; Asilomar, California, Volume 1 Gen. Tech. Rep. PSW-GTR-191. Albany, CA: U.S. Dept. of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Southwest Research Station: p. 504-510 https://www.fs.usda.gov/research/treesearch/31884.
- Miller, Tricia A., Robert P. Brooks, Michael Lanzone, David Brandes, Jeff Cooper, Kieran O’Malley, Charles Maisonneuve, Junior Tremblay, Adam Duerr, and Todd Katzner. “Assessing Risk to Birds from Industrial Wind Energy Development via Paired Resource Selection Models: Assessing Risk to Birds from Wind Energy.” Conservation Biology 28, no. 3 (June 2014): 745–55. https://doi.org/10.1111/cobi.12227.
- The Nature Conservancy: Site Wind Right.
- Van Pelt WE, et al. 2013. The Lesser Prairie-Chicken Range-wide Conservation Plan. Western Association of Fish and Wildlife Agencies p. 107.
- U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service: Endangered Species.
Chapter 4
Minimizing Collision Risk to Wildlife During Operations
Minimization: Deterrence
- Gorresen P, Cryan PM, Dalton DC, Wolf S, Johnson JA, Todd CM, Bonaccorso FJ. 2015. Dim ultraviolet light as a means of deterring activity by the Hawaiian hoary bat Lasiuruscinereus semotus. Endangered Species Research 28: 249–257.
- H.T. Harvey & Associates. 2018. Evaluating a Commercial-Ready Technology for Raptor Detection and Deterrence at a Wind Energy Facility in California. AWWI Technical Report.
- May R, Nygård T, Falkdalen U, Åström J, Hamre Ø, Stokke BG. 2020. Paint it black: Efficacy of increased wind turbine rotor blade visibility to reduce avian fatalities. Ecology and Evolution 10:8927–8935.
- May, R., O. Reitan, K. Bevanger, S.-H. Lorentsen, and T. Nygård. “Mitigating Wind-Turbine Induced Avian Mortality: Sensory, Aerodynamic and Cognitive Constraints and Options.” Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 42 (February 2015): 170–81. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2014.10.002.
- Weaver SP, Hein CD, Simpson TR, Evans JW, Castro-Arellano I. 2020. Ultrasonic acoustic deterrents significantly reduce bat fatalities at wind turbines. Global Ecology and Conservation 24:e01099.
Minimization: Curtailment
- de Lucas M, Ferrer M, Bechard M, Muñoz MJ. 2012. Griffon vulture mortality at wind farms in southern Spain: Distribution of fatalities and active mitigation measures. Biological Conservation 147:184-189.
- Ferrer M, de Lucas M, Janss GFE, Casado E, Muñoz AR, Bechard MJ, Calabuig CP. 2012. Weak relationship between risk assessment studies and recorded mortality in wind farms. Journal of Applied Ecology 49:38-46.
- Hayes MA, Hooton LA, Gilland KL, Grandgent C, Smit RL, Lindsay SR, Collins JD, Schumacher SM, Rabie PA, Gruver JC, Goodrich-Mahoney J. 2019. A smart curtailment approach for reducing bat fatalities and curtailment time at wind energy facilities. Ecological Applications 29:e01881.
- Martin CM, Arnett EB, Stevens RD, Wallace MC. 2017. Reducing bat fatalities at wind facilities while improving the economic efficiency of operational mitigation. Journal of Mammalogy 98:378-385.
- McClure CJW, Rolek BW, Dunn L, McCabe JD, Martinson L, Katzner T. 2021. Eagle fatalities are reduced by automated curtailment of wind turbines. Journal of Applied Ecology 58:446-452.
- McClure, Christopher J. W., Brian W. Rolek, Leah Dunn, Jennifer D. McCabe, Luke Martinson, and Todd E. Katzner. “Confirmation That Eagle Fatalities Can Be Reduced by Automated Curtailment of Wind Turbines.” Ecological Solutions and Evidence 3, no. 3 (2022): e12173. https://doi.org/10.1002/2688-8319.12173.
- Smallwood, K. Shawn, and Douglas A. Bell. “Effects of Wind Turbine Curtailment on Bird and Bat Fatalities.” The Journal of Wildlife Management 84, no. 4 (2020): 685–96. https://doi.org/10.1002/jwmg.21844.
- Whitby M, Schirmacher M, Frick W. 2021. The State of the Science on Operational Minimization to Reduce Bat Fatality at Wind Energy Facilities.
Chapter 5
Compensatory Mitigation
Compensating for Adverse Impacts
- Huso MP et al. 2015. Estimating wind-turbine-caused bird and bat fatality when zero carcasses are observed. Ecological Applications 25(5):1213-1225.
- Shaffer JA et al. 2019. Estimating offsets for avian displacement effects of anthropogenic impacts. Ecological Applications. Ecological Society of America. 29(8):e01983.
- United States Department of Agriculture Natural Resources Conservation Service: Banking on Sage Grouse Habitat.
- U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service: Eagle Management.
- Western EcoSystems Technology, Inc. 2016. Technical Memorandum: Mitigation Banking-Style Option for the Headwaters Wind Farm Habitat Conservation Plan.
How is Compensatory Mitigation Implemented?
- Cochrane JF, et al. 2015. Modeling with uncertain science: estimating mitigation credits from abating lead poisoning in Golden Eagles. Ecological Applications 25(6)1518–1533.
- LeBeau CW, et al. 2018. Landscape-Scale Approach to Quantifying Habitat Credits for A Greater Sage-grouse Habitat Conservation Bank. Rangeland Ecology & Management 71(2):149-158.
- Lonsdorf E, Sanders-Reed CA, Boal C, Allison T. 2018. Modeling Golden Eagle-Vehicle Collisions to Design Mitigation Strategies. The Journal of Wildlife Management.
- U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 2011. Habitat Conservation Plans Under the Endangered Species Act.
- U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 2013. Eagle Conservation Plan Guidance.
- U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 2016. Eagle Permits; Revisions to Regulations for Eagle Incidental Take and Take of Eagle Nests.
- U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 2016. Midwest Wind Multi-Species Habitat Conservation Plan.
- U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service: Eagle Management.
- U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service: Endangered Species Act.
- United States Department of Agriculture Natural Resources Conservation Service: Banking on Sage Grouse Habitat.
- Van Pelt WE, et al. 2013. The Lesser Prairie-Chicken Range-wide Conservation Plan. Western Association of Fish and Wildlife Agencies.
PHOTO CREDITS
Homepage & Overview
- Red-Winged Blackbirds Photo by Alberto_Vo5 / CC BY-NC 2.0
- Horned Lark Photo by Kenneth Cole Schnieder / CC BY-NC-SA 2.0
- Turbines During the Day Photo by Portland General Electric / CC BY-ND 2.0
- Prairie Chicken Photo Credit: USFWS (Public Domain)
- Big Horn Wind Farm: Courtesy of Iberdrola Renewables/NREL
- Bat Thermal Image Credit: USFWS (Public Domain)
- Indiana Bat Photo Credit: USFWS – Midwest Region (Public Domain)
- Hannibal Caves Photo Courtesy of Steve Orr/The Conservation Fund
- Western Meadowlark Photo by Dan Streiffert / CC BY-NC 2.0
Chapter 1
- Mexican Free-Tailed Bats Photo Credit: USFWS (Public Domain)
- Golden Eagle Credit: Kent Miller/NPS (Public Domain)
- Tucanon River Wind Farm Landscape Photo by Portland General Electric / CC BY-ND 2.0
- Red Canyon Road and Rim Photo by Bernd Thaller / CC BY 2.0
- Spring Valley Photo Courtesy of Pattern Energy
Chapter 2
- Turbines During the Day Photo by Portland General Electric / CC BY-ND 2.0
- Golden Eagle Photo by Ingnacio Ferre Pérez / CC BY-NC-ND 2.0
- Mexican Free-Tailed Bats Photo by USFWS (Public Domain)
- Greater Sage Grouse Photo by USFWS Pacific Southwest Region (Public Domain)
- Cedar Waxwing Photo by Teddy Llovet / CC BY-NC 2.0
- Judith Gab Wind Energy Center in Montana Photo Courtesy of Invenergy
Chapter 3
- Nebraska Prairie Photo by Rick Bohn / USFWS (Public Domain)
- Documenting Site Photo by USDA (Public Domain)
- Prairie Chicken Photo Credit USFWS (Public Domain)
- Turbine in Field Photo by Chesapeake Bay Program / CC BY-NC 2.0
Chapter 4
- NRG Engineering Photo Courtesy of NRG Systems
- Kodiak Electric Wind Turbine Maintenance Photo by James Brooks / CC BY 2.0
Chapter 5
- Bald Eagle Photo by Nicole Beaulac / CC BY-NC-ND 2.0
- Indiana Bats in Wyandotte Cave Photo by R. Andrew King/USFWS (Public Domain)
- Golden Eagle Photo by Alan Schmierer / CC0 1.0
- Turbines at Dusk Photo Courtesy of Pattern Energy